The DALTON’S ATOMIC, ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which he proposed the following: Matter consists of indivisible atoms. Ajrndn anrnf sjrnf fnfn are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. 9. ATOM Atom is the smallest part of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction. {Note : This definition holds true only for non-radioactive reactions} 9.1 Mass of an Atom There are two ways to denote the mass of atoms. 9.2 Method 1 Atomic mass can be defined as a mass of a single atom which is measured in atomic mass unit (amu) or unified mass (u) where 1 a.m.u. = 1/12th of the mass of one C12 atom 9.3 Method 2 Mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms of that element taken in grams. This is also known as molar atomic mass. 1 mole of atoms and this number is also called the Avogadro’s Number. Mole is just a number. As 1 dozen = 12; 1 million = 106; 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023. 10. MOLECULES A group of similar or dissimilar atoms which exist together in nature is known as a molecule. e.g. H2, NH3. The mass of molecules is measured by adding the masses of the atoms which constitute the molecule. Thus, the mass of a molecule can also be represented by the two methods used for measuring the mass of an atom viz. amu and g/mol.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS A chemical reaction is only rearrangement of atoms. Atoms from different molecules (may be even same molecule) rearrange themselves to form new molecules. Points to remember : Always balance chemical equations before doing any calculations The number of molecules in a reaction need not to be conserved e.g. N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3. The number of molecules is not conserved If we talk about only rearrangement of atoms in a balanced chemical reaction then it is evident that the mass of the atoms in the reactants side is equal to the sum of the masses of the atoms on the products side. This is the Law of Conservation of Atoms and Law of Conservation of Mass. 12. STOICHIOMETRY The study of chemical reactions and calculations related to it is called Stoichiometry. The coefficients used to balance the reaction are called Stoichiometric ajdnf d arba the gamer boy pubg mobile class 11 notrs at react and not the ratio of masses. Stoichiometric ratios can be used to predict the moles of product formed only if all the reactants are present in the stoichiometric ratios. is called the Excess Reagent. e.g. if we burn carbon in air (which has an infinite supply of oxygen) then the amount of CO2 being produced will be governed by the amount of carbon taken. In this case, Carbon is the LR and O2 is the ER. 13. PERCENT YIELD As discussed earlier, due to practical reasons the amount of product formed by a chemical reaction is less than the amount predicted by theoretical calculations. The ratio of the amount of product formed to the amount predicted when multiplied by 100 gives the percentage yield. Percentage Yield = Actual Yield Theoretical Yield × 100 14. REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS MEDIA Two solids cannot react with each other in solid phase and hence need to be dissolved in a liquid. When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, they co-exist in a single phase called the solution. Various parameters are used to measure the strength of a solution. The strength of a solution denotes the amount of solute which is contained in the solution. The parameters used to denote the strength of a solution are: Mole fraction X : moles of a component / Total moles of solution. Mass% : Mass of solute (in g) present in 100g of solution. Mass/Vol : Mass of solute (in g) present in 100mL of solution v/v : Volume of solute/volume of solution {only for liq-liq solutions} Practically the amount of products formed is always less than the amount predicted by theoretical calculations 12.1 Limiting Reagent (LR) and Excess Reagent (ER) g/L : Wt. of solute (g) in 1L of solution ppm : mass of solute 10 mass of solution 6 If the reactants are not taken in the stoichiometric ratios then the reactant which is less than the required amount determines how much product will be formed and is known as the Limiting Reagent and the reactant present in excess Molarity (M) : Molality (m) : moles of solute volume of solution (L) moles of solute mass of solvent (kg)

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